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Chemistry is fun. Too hard for precise physics (pre quantum computing, see also quantum chemistry), but not too hard for some maths like social sciences.
And it underpins biology.
Video 1.
100 Greatest Discoveries - Chemistry by the Discovery Channel (2005)
Source. Pretty good within what you can expect from popular science. The discovery selection is solid, and he interviews 3 Nobel Prize laureates, only one about stuff they invented, so you can see their faces. The short non-precise scenes of epoch are also pleasing. Part of 100 Greatest Discoveries by the Discovery Channel (2004-2005).

Atom

words: 882 articles: 11
Theory that atoms exist, i.e. matter is not continuous.
Much before atoms were thought to be "experimentally real", chemists from the 19th century already used "conceptual atoms" as units for the proportions observed in macroscopic chemical reactions, e.g. . The thing is, there was still the possibility that those proportions were made up of something continuous that for some reason could only combine in the given proportions, so the atoms could only be strictly consider calculatory devices pending further evidence.
Subtle is the Lord by Abraham Pais (1982) chapter 5 "The reality of molecules" has some good mentions. Notably, physicists generally came to believe in atoms earlier than chemists, because the phenomena they were most interested in, e.g. pressure in the ideal gas law, and then Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics just scream atoms more loudly than chemical reactions, as they saw that these phenomena could be explained to some degree by traditional mechanics of little balls.
Confusion around the probabilistic nature of the second law of thermodynamics was also used as a physical counterargument by some. Pais mentions that Wilhelm Ostwald notably argued that the time reversibility of classical mechanics + the second law being a fundamental law of physics (and not just probabilistic, which is the correct hypothesis as we now understand) must imply that atoms are not classic billiard balls, otherwise the second law could be broken.
Pais also mentions that a big "chemical" breakthrough was Isomers suggest that atoms exist.
Very direct evidence evidence:
Less direct evidence:
Subtle is the Lord by Abraham Pais (1982) page 40 mentions several methods that Einstein used to "prove" that atoms were real. Perhaps the greatest argument of all is that several unrelated methods give the same estimates of atom size/mass:

History of the atomic theory

words: 52 articles: 1
Subtle is the Lord by Abraham Pais (1982) mentions that this has a good summary of the atomic theory evidence that was present at the time, and which had become basically indisputable at or soon after that date.
On Wikimedia Commons since it is now public domain in most countries: commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perrin,_Jean_-_Les_Atomes,_F%C3%A9lix_Alcan,_1913.djvu
An English translation from 1916 by English chemist Dalziel Llewellyn Hammick on the Internet Archive, also on the public domain: archive.org/details/atoms00hammgoog

Atomic theory evidence

words: 320 articles: 2
Subtle is the Lord by Abraham Pais (1982) page 85:
However, it became increasingly difficult in chemical circles to deny the reality of molecules after 1874, the year in which Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff and Joseph Achille Le Bel independently explained the isomerism of certain organic substances in terms of stereochemical properties of carbon compounds.
so it is quite cool to see that organic chemistry is one of the things that pushed atomic theory forward. Because when you start to observe that isomers has different characteristics, despite identical proportions of atoms, this is really hard to explain without talking about the relative positions of the atoms within molecules!
TODO: is there anything even more precise that points to atoms in stereoisomers besides just the "two isomers with different properties" thing?
Small microscopic visible particles move randomly around in water.
If water were continuous, this shouldn't happen. Therefore this serves as one important evidence of atomic theory.
The amount it moves also quantitatively matches with the expected properties of water and the floating particles, was was settled in 1905 by Einstein at: investigations on the theory of the Brownian movement by Einstein (1905).
This suggestion that Brownian motion comes from the movement of atoms had been made much before Einstein however, and passed tortuous discussions. Subtle is the Lord by Abraham Pais (1982) page 93 explains it well. There had already been infinite discussion on possible causes of those movements besides atomic theory, and many ideas were rejected as incompatible with observations:
Further investigations eliminated such causes as temperature gradients, mechanical disturbances, capillary actions, irradiation of the liquid (as long as the resulting temperature increase can be neglected), and the presence of convection currents within the liquid.
The first suggestions of atomic theory were from the 1860s.
Tiny uniform plastic beads called "microbeads" are the preferred 2019 modern method of doing this: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbead
Original well known observation in 1827 by Brown, with further experiments and interpretation in 1908 by Jean Baptiste Perrin. Possible precursor observation in 1785 by Jan Ingenhousz, not sure why he wasn't credited better.
Video 2.
Observing Brownian motion of micro beads by Forrest Charnock (2016)
Source.

Model of the atom

words: 161 articles: 3

Bohr model (1913)

words: 161 articles: 2
Was the first model to explain the Balmer series, notably linking atomic spectra to the Planck constant and therefore to other initial quantum mechanical observations.
This was one of the first major models that just said:
I give up, I can't tie this to classical physics in any way, let's just roll with it, OK?
It still treats electrons as little points spinning around the nucleus, but it makes the non-classical postulate that only certain angular momentums (and therefore energies) are allowed.
Bibliography:
Quantum jump
words: 15
Bagic jump between orbitals in the Bohr model. Analogous to the later wave function collapse in the Schrödinger equation.
Causality and quantum jumps are incompatible.
Refinement of the Bohr model that starts to take quantum angular momentum into account in order to explain missing lines that would have been otherwise observed TODO specific example of such line.
They are not observe because they would violate the conservation of angular momentum.
Introduces the azimuthal quantum number and magnetic quantum number.
TODO confirm year and paper, Wikipedia points to: zenodo.org/record/1424309#.yotqe3xmjhe

Analytical chemistry

words: 152 articles: 3

Gas chromatography (GC)

words: 152 articles: 1
This technique is crazy! It allows to both:
  • separate gaseous mixtures
  • identify gaseous compounds
You actually see discrete peaks at different minute counts on the other end.
It is based on how much the gas interacts with the column.
Detection is usually done burning the sample to ionize it when it comes out, and then you measure the current produced.
The procedure remind you a bit of gel electrophoreses, except that it is in gaseous phase.
Video 3.
Gas chromatography by Quick Biochemistry Basics (2019)
Source.
Video 4.
How I invented the electron capture detector interview with James Lovelock by Web of Stories (2001)
Source. He mentions how scientists had to make their own tools during the 40s/60s. Then how gas chromatography was invented at the National Institute for Medical Research and gained a Nobel Prize. Lovelock came in improving the detection part of things.
The name makes absolutely no sense in modern terms, as nor colours nor light are used directly in the measurements. It is purely historical.
www.chromatographytoday.com/news/gc-mdgc/32/breaking-news/why-is-chromatography-called-chromatography/31178

Chemist

articles: 3

Chemical element

words: 1k articles: 158
Figure 2. Source.

Discovery of chemical elements

words: 6 articles: 2
6th edition (1956) on the Internet Archive: archive.org/details/discoveryoftheel002045mbp

Category of chemical element

words: 13 articles: 1
Video 5.
The Secrets of the Super Elements
. Source. 2019, by the BBC. Official page: www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b08rv9r6.

List of chemical elements

words: 1k articles: 149

Hydrogen (H, 1)

words: 111 articles: 13
Water
words: 59 articles: 5
"Water" is the name for both:
Figure 3.
Water in a glass
. Source.
Figure 4. . Source.
Figure 5.
Simplified phase diagram of water
. Source. Note the triple point and critical point visible. Phase diagrams are so cool!
Figure 6. . Source. Note all the obscure phases of ice.
Ice
words: 22 articles: 3
Ice is the name of one of the solid phases of water.
In informal contexts, it usually refers to the phase of ice observed in atmospheric pressure, Ice Ih.
Phases of ice
articles: 1
Isotope of hydrogen
words: 52 articles: 6
Deuterium (2H, stable, 0.02%)
words: 50 articles: 3
Applications:
Heavy water
words: 30 articles: 2
Cody'sLab had a nice 5 video series on making it at home! But the United States Government asked him to take it down as suggested at Video "What's Been Going On With Cody'sLab? by Cody'sLab (2019)" at youtu.be/x1mv0vwb08Y?t=84.
Here's a copy online as of 2020: www.youtube.com/watch?v=bCXB6BdMh9Y
Used in:

Helium (He, 2)

words: 104 articles: 6
Liquid helium (4.2 K, Helium I)
words: 104 articles: 3
4 K. Enough for to make "low temperature superconductors" like regular metals superconducting, e.g. the superconducting temperature of aluminum if 1.2 K.
Contrast with liquid nitrogen, which is much cheaper but only goes to 77K.
Superfluid helium
words: 74 articles: 2
Surprisingly, it can also become a superfluid even though each atom is a fermion! This is because of Cooper pair formation, just like in superconductors, but the transition happens at lower temperatures than superfluid helium-4, which is a boson.
aps.org/publications/apsnews/202110/history.cfm: October 1972: Publication of Discovery of Superfluid Helium-3 contains comments on the seminal paper and a graph which we must steal.
Also sometimes called helium II, in contrast to helium I, which is the non-superfluid liquid helium phase.
Video 6.
Superfluid helium Resonance Experiment by Dietterich Labs (2019)
Source.

Carbon (C, 6)

words: 100 articles: 20
Carbon isotope
articles: 5
Carbon-14 (5 ky)
articles: 2
Radiocarbon dating
articles: 1
Carbon compound
words: 100 articles: 13
Allotrope of carbon
words: 100 articles: 6
Fullerene
words: 92 articles: 1
Video 7.
Buckyballs (C60) by Periodic Videos (2010)
Source. Actually shows them in a lab!
  • youtu.be/ljF5QhD5hnI?t=167 has a photo of the first effective production method, which passes a large current between two carbon rods
  • youtu.be/ljF5QhD5hnI?t=245 and forward cuts (their editing is very annoying) shows how fullerene dissolves in an organic solvent TODO name, sounds like thodium? and produces a violet solution, while graphite doesn't. A Ultrasonic bath is needed for the solution to form however.
  • youtu.be/ljF5QhD5hnI?t=501 fullerene is not a good lubricant despite being a little ball, because it is reactive and polymerises under pressure
Video 8.
Endohedral Fullerenes by Dom Burges (2016)
Source.
Graphite
words: 8 articles: 2
The layered one.
Graphene
words: 5
A single layer of graphite.

Nitrogen (N, 7)

words: 91 articles: 3
Liquid nitrogen
words: 91
77K. Low enough for "high temperature superconductors" such as yttrium barium copper oxide, but for "low temperature superconductors", you need to go much lower, typically with liquid helium, which is likely much more expensive. TODO by how much?
Video 9.
Where Do You Get Liquid Nitrogen? by The King of Random (2016)
Source. He just goes to a medical gases shop in a local industrial estate and buys 20L for 95 dollars and brings it back on his own Dewar marked 35LD.
Video 10.
Making Liquid Nitrogen From Scratch! by Veritasium (2019)
Source. "From scratch" is perhaps a bit clickbaity, but I'll take it.
Nitrogen compound
articles: 1

Oxygen (O, 8)

words: 6 articles: 2
Oxygen compound
words: 6 articles: 1
Piezoelectric, and notably used in quartz clock.

Sodium (Na, 11)

articles: 1

Aluminium (Al, 13)

articles: 1
www.quora.com/Why-does-phosphorous-have-a-valency-of-3-and-5

Sulfur (S, 16)

words: 26 articles: 2
Sulfur compound
words: 26 articles: 1
Video 11.
Danger by Bayway Refinery
. Source. TODO year.

Argon (Ar, 18)

words: 21 articles: 4
And notably, it is almost all Argon-40, which is stable, but not the most common one to come from natural nucleosynthesis.
Argon isotope
articles: 1

Titanium (Ti, 22)

articles: 2
Titanium compound
articles: 1

Iron (Fe, 26)

words: 39 articles: 2
Fe-C
words: 30
An alloy of iron and carbon. Because such allys have had such incredible historical importance due to their different properties, different phases of Fe-C have well known names such as steel
Figure 7. . Source.
Steel (Fe-C)
words: 9
A phase of Fe-C characterized by the low ammount of carbon.
Figure 8. Source.

Cobalt (Co, 27)

articles: 2
Cobalt isomer
articles: 1

Copper (Cu, 29)

articles: 1

Gallium (Ga, 31)

words: 99 articles: 3
Gallium compound
words: 99 articles: 2
Gallium arsenide
words: 99 articles: 1
This is apparently the most important III-V semiconductor, it seems to actually have some applications, see also: gallium arsenide vs silicon.
Trying to use gallium arsenide was Seymour Cray's fatal last flaw as mentioned at The Supermen: The Story of Seymour Cray by Charles J. Murray (1997).
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_arsenide#Comparison_with_silicon_for_electronics
The Supermen: The Story of Seymour Cray by Charles J. Murray (1997) page 4 mentions:
Cray wanted his new machine to employ circuits made from a material called gallium arsenide. Gallium arsenide had achieved limited success, particularly in satellite communications and military electronics. But no one had succeeded with it in anything so complicated as a computer. In the computer industry, engineers had developed a saying: "Gallium arsenide is the technology of the future," they would say. "And it always will be."

Arsenide (As, 33)

articles: 1
Bromide ()
articles: 2

Niobium (Nb, 41)

words: 6 articles: 2
Second most important superconducting material: applications of superconductivity.

Caesium (Cs, 55, )

words: 138 articles: 3
Stable isotope.
Caesium-137 (radioactive)
words: 136 articles: 1
Highly radioactive isotope of caesium with half-life of 30.17 y. Produced from the nuclear fission of uranium, TODO exact reaction, not found in nature.
The fucked thing about this byproduct is that it is in the same chemical family as sodium, and therefore forms a salt that looks like regular table salt, and dissolves in water and therefore easily enters your body and sticks to things.
Another problem is that its half-life is long enough that it doesn't lose radioactivity very quickly compared to the life of a human person, although it is short enough to make it highly toxic, making it a terrible pollutant when released.
This is why for example in the goiânia accident a girl ended up ingesting Caesium-137 after eating an egg after touching the Caesium with her hands.
Figure 9.
caesium-137 decay scheme
. Source.
Video 12.
One handful contaminated a city by Kyle Hill (2021)
Source.
Not "Yt" because that is already "Yttrium". God.

Gold (Au, 79)

words: 7 articles: 1
Gold leaf
words: 7
Video 13.
Hands: A Dublin Bookbinder
. Source. Some awesome gold leaf action!

Bismuth (Bi, 83)

articles: 1

Polonium (Po, 84, July 1998)

words: 62 articles: 4
Discovered by Marie Curie, published July 1999.
Polonium isotope
words: 56 articles: 3
There are no stable isotopes.
The only isotope found on Earth because it occurs as part of the uranium 238 decay chain, i.e., it is not a primordial nuclide.
Interestingly it is a bit less stable than other isotopesL such as Polonium-208 (3 y) and Polonium-209 (124 y), but those aren't in any Earthly radioactive chain so they don't show up on Earth.

Radium (Ra, 88, December 1989)

words: 60 articles: 1
Discovered by Marie Curie when she noticed that there was some yet unknown more radioactive element in their raw samples, after uranium and polonium, which she published 6 months prior, had already been separated. Published on December 1989 as: Section "Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende".
The uranium 238 decay chain is the main source of naturally occurring radium.
Video 14.
The epic story of radium by Institut de Radioprotection et de Sûreté Nucléaire (2013)
Source.

Thorium (Th, 90)

words: 12 articles: 5
Thorium isotope
words: 12 articles: 3
This isomer has an interest for atomic clocks due to an exceptionally low energy nuclear isomer transition: www.quantamagazine.org/the-first-nuclear-clock-will-test-if-fundamental-constants-change-20240904/
Figure 10. Source.

Uranium (U, 92)

words: 151 articles: 15
Uranium vs Plutonium
words: 62 articles: 2
Video 15. . Source. Has some good mentions of Uranium vs Plutonium in nuclear weapon design.
Bibliography:
Because you can generate plutonium-239 from uranium-238 in a breeder reactor, and then separate the plutonium-239 from the Uranium simply by using chemistry methods because you've created an element with different valence electrons.
Isn't it somewhat funny that it is easier to purify a synthetic element than a naturally occurring one?
www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-plutonium-and-uranium/answer/Ciro-Santilli
Uranium compound
articles: 2
Uranium oxide
articles: 1
Uranium ore (UO2)
words: 38 articles: 1
This is the mineral that Pierre and Marie Curie used to discover polonium and radium.
Video 16.
The Most Dangerous Rock in the World by Welch Labs
. Source. OK, the title is quite minimalistic, he goes on to talk about the full early history of nuclear fission!
Uranium isotope
words: 6 articles: 4
Produced as part of the thorium fuel cycle.
Uranium-238 (4 Gy)
articles: 1
Figure 11. . Source.
Uranium glass
words: 45
Glass with Uranium added to it to become fluorescent due to Uranium's chemical properties. This is unrelated to Uranium's nuclear properties.
However it was this fluorescence that led Henri Becquerel to discover radioactivity while studying fluorescence, which led him to have Uranium compounds and photographic material in close proximity. I love science I guess.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vasline_glass_glowing.jpg

Plutonium (Pu, 94)

words: 200 articles: 7
Vs uranium: uranium vs plutonium Quora answer by Ciro Santilli.
What a material:
  • only exists in trace amounts in nature,but it can be produced at kilogram scale in breeder reactors
  • it is only intentionally produced for one application, and one application only basically: nuclear weapons
Video 17. Source. Plutonium for self-respect scene from the 1987 film Edge Of Darkness
Video 18.
Burning and Extinguishing Characteristics of Plutonium Metal Fires by RobPlonski
. Source. Commented by this dude: www.linkedin.com/in/robplonski/
Plutonium extraction from Uranium
words: 20 articles: 1
PUREX
words: 20
Video 19. . Source. Describes conversion from Plutonium nitrate to a plutonium metal slab, which is then sent to final pit.
Plutonium isotope
words: 127 articles: 4
Plutonium-238
words: 38
Strong alpha emitter. Can be used as an atomic battery.
Figure 12.
Plutonium-238-oxide pellet glowing under its own heat
. Source. Unlike for nuclear applications, we don't need the pure metal, so the oxide 238PuO2 is used instead as it is more chemically stable.
Plutonium-239
words: 15 articles: 1
This is the isotope that is produced for nuclear weapons by irradiating Uranium-238 with a neutron.
Plutonium-240 is a contaminant.
Plutonium-240
words: 74
This isotope shows up as an inevitable contaminant in Plutonium-239 for nuclear weapons, because it emits neutrons too fast and makes it harder to assemble the critical mass without fizzle.
It is the presence of this contaminant that made implosion-type fission weapon a necessity: Section "Gun-type fission weapons don't work with plutonium".
Wikipedia explains that Pu-240 is formed by Pu-239 Neutron capture:
About 62% to 73% of the time when 239Pu captures a neutron, it undergoes fission; the remainder of the time, it forms 240Pu.
so its presence is inevitable.

Chemical substance

words: 115 articles: 46

Chemical compound

words: 115 articles: 45
The definition does not include homonuclear molecules which is a pain.

Chemical explosive

articles: 2

Ionic compound

articles: 1

Homonuclear molecule

words: 19 articles: 1
Allotrope
words: 19
Single chemical element, single phase (usually solid), but different 3D structures.
The prototypical examples are the allotropes of carbon such as diamond vs graphite.

Nutrient

words: 63 articles: 21
Carbohydrate
words: 36 articles: 7
Sugar
words: 18
We define a "sugar" as either of:because these are small carbohydrates, and they taste sweet to humans.
Monosaccharide
words: 18 articles: 2
Glucose
words: 18
The most important on in metabolism internals, everything else gets converted to it before being processed in the .
Disaccharide
articles: 1
Fatty acid
articles: 1
Essential nutrient
words: 27 articles: 9
Nutrient that a given species cannot produce and must ingest in its diet.
en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nutrient&oldid=1075972831#Essential gives somewhat of an overview:
Mineral (nutrient)
articles: 1
Vitamin
articles: 3
This section is present in another page, follow this link to view it.

Organic compound

words: 24 articles: 7
Benzene (C6H6)
words: 20
Figure 13. . Source.
Video 20.
The FASCINATING 200-Year History of Benzene by Chemistorian
. Source. Interesting history. Notably how things were only finally well settled by X-ray crystallography.
Capsaicin
words: 4
Active compound in pepper.

Poison

articles: 6
Blood agent
articles: 1
Nerve agent
articles: 2

Organic chemistry

words: 75 articles: 5

Biochemistry

words: 75 articles: 4
iubmb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/bmb.2002.494030030067 Surprises and revelations in biochemistry: 1950-2000 by Perry A. Frey (2006). This should be worth a read.

Biochemist

words: 58 articles: 3
Ah, this seems like a nice dude.
Video 21.
Fred Sanger 1918-2013 by Birgitta Olofsson (2013)
Source. This is a good video especially is you know Cambridge, to help situate Sanger's places a bit. Good Sanger quote at the end:
I always tell people, it is much easier to get the second one than the first
Peter D. Mitchell
words: 7 articles: 1
Power, Sex, Suicide by Nick Lane (2006) paints a colorful picture of the man!

Chemical company

words: 21 articles: 1

DuPont

words: 21
They made gunpowder. Then the American Civil War came. Billions, baby.
Military links carried over well into World War II, where e.g. they built the B Reactor.

Chemical reaction

words: 163 articles: 14

Reaction rate

articles: 3

Catalysis

articles: 1

Total synthesis

words: 12 articles: 2
TODO why can't we produce organic compounds more cheaply by total synthesis than biosynthesis?

Chemical process

words: 133 articles: 5

Chemical process design

words: 133 articles: 3
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_design
Video 22.
Computer Aided Simulation & Design in Chemical Engineering by Chemical Engineering Guy (2016)
Source. Interesting overview of the different types of modelling software used in chemical process design.
Video 23.
How to Design a Total Synthesis by Mike Christiansen (2013)
Source. Just a ultra quick hello world with some very basic ideas, but worth watching.
Video 24.
SuperPro Designer: Fermentation Simulation by LearnChemE (2012)
Source.
Chemical process design software
words: 77 articles: 1
Video 25.
Process Simulation Software FREE Download - Aspen Hysys versus DWSim | COCO by Jeferson Costa (2020)
Source. Jeferson, a Brazilian from Petrobras, is the creator of the open source DWSim software, and in this video he gives a quick demo of his software and compares it briefly to aspen HYSYS, which appears to be the golden paid reference implementation.
Aspen HYSYS
words: 21
Video 26.
Aspen Hysys Introduction by Emmanuel Oloyede (2016)
Source. Holy crap, the UI is identical to Microsoft Word with that huge top bar!!!
First, experiments, please how do you determine it and how it helps predict the future: chemistry.stackexchange.com/questions/42066/is-there-a-way-to-experimentally-measure-entropy
No YouTube video? Really?

Electrochemistry

words: 97 articles: 4

Electric battery

words: 97 articles: 3
Only certain battery voltages exist, because this voltage depends intrinsically on the battery's chemical composition.
learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/battery-technologies/all (CC BY-SA) has a very good summary list, reordered from lowest to highest voltage:
Battery ShapeChemistryNominal VoltageRechargeable?
AA, AAA, C, D (Rechargeable)NiMH or NiCd1.2VYes
AA, AAA, C, and DAlkaline or Zinc-carbon1.5VNo
Coin CellLithium3VNo
Silver Flat PackLithium Polymer (LiPo)3.7VYes
9VAlkaline or Zinc-carbon9VNo
Car BatterySix-cell lead acid12.6VYes
Bibliography:

Weston cell

words: 15

NFPA 704 (Fire diamond)

words: 22 articles: 1
I can't believe there isn't a YouTube video comparing various substances for each flammability and instability ratings, this would be a huge hit.

pH

articles: 1

Periodic table

words: 80 articles: 2

Noble gas

words: 80 articles: 1
Discovering them was not so easy because they don't form chemical compounds. So they exist only as gases. And Helium disperses off into space.
Argon was the first to be found by density considerations because it is so abundant on Earth's atmosphere (~1%): Argon is abundant on Earth's atmosphere because it comes from the decay of Potassium-40.
Then basically all of the others were discovered by spectral lines. Helium notably was first found on the Sun like that, and only later on Earth! Thus its name. Pretty cool.
Video 27.
The Incredible Discovery of the LEAST Reactive Elements by Chemistorian
. Source. 2024. Great video.
www.youtube.com/channel/UCtESv1e7ntJaLJYKIO1FoYw

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